Abstract
The current development of microelectronics and Internet of Things systems requires the creation of autonomous power sources that are small, highly efficient, and have a long service life. Miniature parametric energy generators are considered a promising solution to this problem. They are based on the use of variable system parameters (capacitance, inductance, stiffness of elastic elements), which allows mechanical, vibrational, or electromagnetic influences to be efficiently converted into electrical energy. The article provides an overview of modern concepts of parametric generators, considers design approaches to their implementation based on micro- and nanoelectromechanical systems (MEMS/NEMS), and analyzes the influence of materials and geometric parameters on conversion efficiency. Particular attention is paid to comparing alternative energy harvesting methods and exploring their prospects for application in the fields of wireless sensor networks, medical implants, and miniature electronic devices.
Keywords: parametric generators, energy harvesting, MEMS, microenergy, autonomous sensors.
Introduction
The challenge of providing an autonomous power supply for miniature electronic systems is becoming increasingly relevant due to the rapid development of smart device technologies, sensor networks, and biomedical implants. Traditional power sources, such as batteries and microbatteries, have several significant limitations: limited service life, the need for periodic replacement or recharging, and environmental risks during disposal. This stimulates the search for alternative power supply methods, with the technology of parametric energy generators attracting particular attention.
Parametric generators [5-6] use variable parameters of an oscillatory system to excite and maintain oscillations, allowing them to convert surrounding mechanical or electromagnetic influences into electrical energy efficiently. Unlike classical generators, they are capable of operating under low amplitude disturbances, which makes them promising for integration into MEMS/NEMS [1].
The purpose of this work is to analyze modern approaches to creating miniature parametric energy generators, study the influence of design and material factors on their characteristics, and determine the possibilities for practical application in the field of microenergy.
Literature review and theoretical foundations
Parametric energy generators use variable system parameters, such as capacitance, inductance, or stiffness of elastic elements, allowing the conversion of surrounding mechanical or electromagnetic influences into valuable electrical energy. Their principle of operation is related to the phenomenon of parametric excitation, when a periodic change in a system parameter leads to a resonant increase in the amplitude of oscillations.
In classical works on the theory of oscillations (A. Poincaré, O.M. Lyapunov, M.M. Krylov, 20th century), parametric oscillations were studied in the context of dynamic systems with time-dependent coefficients. Modern research focuses on the practical implementation of these phenomena in MEMS/NEMS.
Today, several main types of miniature parametric energy generators can be distinguished: electrostatic, piezoelectric, electromagnetic, and hybrid. Each of these approaches has its own advantages and limitations, which determines the choice of a specific technology depending on the conditions of application.
Research methods
Research into miniature parametric energy generators requires a comprehensive approach combining mathematical modeling, computer simulation, and experimental verification of the results obtained. The primary methods are: mathematical modeling of parametric oscillation equations, numerical modeling in COMSOL and ANSYS, manufacturing of MEMS prototypes, and testing on vibration test benches. The criteria for evaluating efficiency are [8] specific power, operating frequency range, stability, and durability.
Research results
Mathematical modeling showed the possibility of achieving parametric resonance [9] in the range of 100–500 Hz, which corresponds to the characteristic vibration levels in the environment. Electrostatic generators provide specific powers of 50–200 μW/cm³, piezoelectric generators provide up to 1–3 mW/cm³, and electromagnetic generators offer output voltages of up to 0.5–1 V. Hybrid systems have made it possible to extend the operating frequency range to 50–800 Hz.
Experimental MEMS prototypes based on thin-film AlN provided an output power of about 120 μW at a vibration of 0.5 g, and a microcoil with an NdFeB magnet demonstrated stability over 10⁶ operating cycles.
Discussion
Miniature parametric energy generators have significant potential in the field of autonomous power supply for microelectronic systems. Compared to solar and thermoelectric generators, they offer lower energy density but have the advantage of operating in darkness, at low temperatures, and with minimal fluctuations. Hybrid solutions and the use of new materials (graphene, 2D structures, piezopolymers [2-4, 7]) are promising.
Conclusions
Parametric energy generators are a promising direction for the development of microenergy. They enable the creation of autonomous power sources for sensor networks, biomedical implants, and IoT devices. Further research should focus on the development of hybrid structures, the application of the latest nanomaterials, and the improvement of mass production technologies.
References
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6. A. Cammarano, D. Barton, and S. Neild, Energy harvesting perspectives from parametric resonant systems in Nonlinear Dynamics of Structures, Systems and Devices. Springer, 2015, pp. 237–248.
7. Y. Chen et al., Metaharvesting: Emergent energy harvesting by piezoelectric metamaterials. arXiv preprint, arXiv:2403.09884, 2024.
8. S. Abdullah, M. N. M. Ghazali, and A. R. Abdullah, Parametric study of an electromagnetic energy harvester. Applied Mechanics and Materials.. vol. 471, pp. 113–118, 2014.
9. Y. Zou, D. D. Quinn, A. H. Nayfeh, and M. Ruzzene, Parametric amplification of broadband vibrational energy harvesters via Helmholtz–Duffing oscillators. arXiv preprint, arXiv:2002.02252, 2020.
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